Cattle glue was found in most of the samples containing animal glue, but there were also glues from several different animals, including sheep or goats, donkeys, horses and possibly wild antelopes. The evidence suggests these were made using animal hides and connective tissues rather than bones alone. Several plant proteins were also discovered.

“Proteomics confirmed the use of glue prepared from the collagen of multiple animals and revealed the presence of plant proteins, including sesame and moringa products, previously undocumented in ancient Egyptian artworks,” the researchers said in their paper. _ […]_ Because sesame and moringa can be processed for oil, the researchers ran additional chemical tests to check whether the ingredients were plant oils or another product.

The analysis revealed a protein-rich material, with traces of oil present. This suggests the painters were not using pure plant oils but may instead have been using seed cake, the protein-rich material left over after pressing seeds for oil.